| Functional Group | Test | Production |
|---|---|---|
| Alkane |
Hydrogenation of alkenes using H₂, Pt/Ni catalyst and heat Cracking of crude oil using heat and Al₂O₃ catalyst |
|
| Alkene | Decolourises bromine water |
Elimination of halogenoalkanes by heating it with NaOH (ethanol) Dehydration of alcohols using hot Al₂O₃ catalyst Cracking of crude oil using heat and Al₂O₃ catalyst |
| Halogenoalkane (primary, secondary, tertiary) | Form silver halide precipitate with dilute nitric acid, silver nitrate, and dilute ammonia solution (AgCl = white, AgBr = cream, AgI = yellow) |
Free-radical substitution of alkanes using UV and a halogen Electrophilic addition of hydrogen halides to alkenes Nucleophilic substitution of alcohols using hydrogen halide, PCl₃, and heat, PCl₅ or SOCl₃ |
| Alcohol (primary, secondary, tertiary) |
React with carboxylic acid and sulfuric acid to make esters with sweet, fruity smells Primary alcohols get oxidised to aldehydes (positive test with Fehling’s and Tollens’ solution) and carboxylic acids Secondary alcohols get oxidised to ketones (positive test with 2,4-DNPH but not Tollens’ and Fehling’s solutions) Tertiary alcohols don’t get oxidised |
Electrophilic addition of alkenes using hot steam, concentrated phosphoric (VI) acid as a catalyst Oxidation of alkenes using cold, dilute KMnO₄ to form a diol Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes using heat and NaOH (aq) Reduction of aldehydes and ketones using NaBH₄ and LiAlH₄ Hydrolysis of esters using dilute acid or dilute alkali |
| Aldehyde |
Silver mirror in Tollens’ reagent Red precipitate in Fehling’s solution Orange precipitate with 2,4-DNPH |
Oxidation of primary alcohols by slowly adding warm alcohol to acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ or KMnO₄ and distillation |
| Ketone | Orange precipitate with 2,4-DNPH | Oxidation of secondary alcohol by slowly adding warm alcohol to acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ or KMnO₄ and distillation |
| Carboxylic Acid | React with carbonates to form CO₂ gas which will turn limewater cloudy |
Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones using K₂Cr₂O₇ or KMnO₄ and refluxing Hydrolysis of nitriles with dilute acid or dilute alkali followed by acidification Hydrolysis of esters with dilute acid or dilute alkali followed by acidification |
| Ester | Have sweet, fruity smells | Condensation reaction of alcohols and carboxylic acids with hot, concentrated H₂SO₄ as catalyst |
| Amines | Turns universal indicator blue/purple | Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes when heated under pressure with NH₃ (ethanol) |
| Nitrile | Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes with KCN (ethanol) and heat |
| Functional Group | Reactions |
|---|---|
| Alkanes |
• Hydrogenation of alkenes using H₂, Pt/Ni catalyst and heat • Cracking of crude oil using heat and Al₂O₃ catalyst |
| Alkenes |
• Decolourise bromine water • Elimination of halogenoalkanes by heating with NaOH (ethanol) • Dehydration of alcohols by using hot Al₂O₃ catalyst • Cracking of crude oil using heat and Al₂O₃ catalyst |
| Halogenoalkanes (primary/secondary/tertiary) |
• Form silver precipitate with dilute nitric acid, silver nitrate, and dilute ammonia solution (AgCl = white, AgBr = cream, AgI = yellow) • Free-radical substitution of alkanes using UV and a halogen • Electrophilic addition of hydrogen halides to alkenes • Substitution of alcohols using hydrogen halide, PCl₅ or SOCl₃ |
| Alcohols (primary/secondary/tertiary) |
• React with carboxylic acid and sulfuric acid to make esters with sweet, fruity smell • Primary alcohols get oxidised to aldehydes and carboxylic acids • Secondary alcohols get oxidised to ketones • Tertiary alcohols do not oxidise • Electrophilic addition of alkenes using hot steam, concentrated phosphoric acid • Oxidation of alkenes using cold, dilute KMnO₄ to form diols • Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes using NaOH (aq) |
| Aldehydes |
• Silver mirror in Tollens' reagent and red precipitate in Fehling’s solution • Orange precipitate with 2,4-DNPH • Oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes with acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ or KMnO₄ |
| Ketones |
• Orange precipitate with 2,4-DNPH • Oxidation of secondary alcohol by acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ or KMnO₄ |
| Functional Group | Reactions |
|---|---|
| Carboxylic Acid |
• React with carbonates to form CO₂ gas which will turn limewater cloudy • Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones using acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ or KMnO₄ and refluxing • Hydrolysis of nitriles with dilute acid or dilute alkali followed by acidification • Hydrolysis of esters with dilute acid or dilute alkali followed by acidification |
| Ester |
• Have sweet, fruity smells • Condensation reaction of alcohols and carboxylic acids with hot, concentrated H₂SO₄ as catalyst |
| Amine |
• Turns universal indicator blue/purple • Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes when heated under pressure with NH₃ (ethanol) |
| Nitrile | • Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes with KCN (ethanol) and heat |
| Type of Reaction | Definition | Reagents | Products |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hydrogenation | The addition reaction of alkenes with hydrogen | H₂, Pt/Ni catalyst | Alkanes |
| Cracking | The process in which large hydrocarbons break down into smaller molecules | Al₂O₃ catalyst and heat | Alkanes and alkenes |
| Free-Radical Substitution | The replacement of hydrogen atoms in alkanes with halogen atoms using UV | Halogen and UV light | Halogenoalkanes |
| Electrophilic Addition | An electrophile attacks the C=C bond and addition across the double bond occurs | Electrophile (Br₂, NaOH, KCN, NH₃, HBr) | Halogenoalkanes, alcohols, nitriles, or amines |
| Nucleophilic Addition | Nucleophiles attack carbonyl carbon atoms | Nucleophile (e.g., HCN) | Alcohols or nitriles |
| Reaction Type | Definition | Reagents | Products |
|---|---|---|---|
| Electrophilic Substitution | The replacement of an atom by another atom or group of atoms after initial attack by an electron-deficient species | Electrophile (e.g. Br₂, NaOH, KCN, NH₃, HBr) | Halogenoalkane, alcohol, nitrile, or amine |
| Nucleophilic Substitution | The mechanism of the organic reaction in which a nucleophile attacks a carbon atom carrying a potential positive charge | Nucleophile (e.g. HCN) | Alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid |
| Oxidation | The loss of electrons or gain of oxygen of an atom, ion, or molecule | Oxidising agent such as acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ or KMnO₄ | Alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid |
| Reduction | The gain of electrons or loss of oxygen of an atom, ion, or molecule | Reducing agent such as NaBH₄ or LiAlH₄ | Alkenes, aldehydes, primary and secondary alcohols |
| Hydrolysis | The breakdown of a compound by water or by dilute acids or alkali | Water or dilute acid or alkali | Alcohols, carboxylic acids |
| Condensation | A reaction in which two organic molecules join together and eliminate a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride | Two molecules that can react | Small molecule and a larger molecule |
| Reaction | Definition | Reagents | Products |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oxidation | The loss of electrons or gain of oxygen | Oxidising agents such as K₂Cr₂O₇, KMnO₄ | Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids |
| Reduction | The gain of electrons or loss of oxygen | Reducing agents such as NaBH₄, LiAlH₄ | Alkenes, aldehydes, primary and secondary alcohols |
| Hydrolysis | Breaking down compounds by water or dilute acids/alkali | Water or dilute acids/alkali | Alcohols, carboxylic acids |
| Condensation | A reaction in which two molecules join and eliminate a small molecule | Two molecules that can react | Smaller molecule and a larger molecule |
| Oxidising Agent | Oxidises | Oxidation Product | Colour Change |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acidified Potassium Dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇/H₂SO₄) | Secondary alcohols | Ketones | Orange to green |
| Aldehydes | Carboxylic Acids | Orange to green | |
| Acidified Potassium Permanganate (KMnO₄/H₂SO₄) | Primary alcohols | Aldehydes then carboxylic acids | Purple to colourless |
| Tertiary alcohols | X | ||
| Ketones | X |
| Reducing Agent | Reduces | Reduction Product |
|---|---|---|
| Lithium Aluminium Hydride (LiAlH₄) | Carboxylic Acids | Primary alcohol |
| Aldehyde | Primary alcohol | |
| Ketone | Secondary alcohol | |
| Sodium Borohydride (NaBH₄) | Aldehyde | Primary alcohol |
| Ketone | Secondary alcohol |
| Test | Functional Group Tested | Colour Change |
|---|---|---|
| Tollens' Reagent | Aldehydes | Silver mirror |
| Bromine Water | Alkenes | Decolourises from orange to colourless |
| 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH) | Carbonyl compounds (Aldehydes and Ketones) | Orange precipitate |
| Iodoform Test | Methyl Ketones | Yellow precipitate of iodoform |
| Silver nitrate and ammonia | Halogens | Form precipitates of silver halides (AgCl = white, AgBr = cream, AgI = yellow) |
Alkene Reactions
| Reactant | Product | Reagents | Reaction Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alkene | Hydrogen halide | - | Electrophilic addition |
| Alkene | Alcohol | Steam + H₂SO₄ / heat | Hydration |
| Alkene | Alkane | Hydrogen + Ni catalyst / 150°C | Electrophilic addition / Hydrogenation |
Alcohol Reactions
| Reactant | Product | Reagents | Reaction Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alcohol | Alkene | Al₂O₃ or conc. acid / heat | Elimination / Dehydration |
| Alcohol | Haloalkane | NaX + H₂SO₄ / heat under reflux | Nucleophilic substitution |
| Alcohol | Ester | Carboxylic acid / H₂SO₄ | Esterification |
Haloalkane Reactions
| Reactant | Product | Reagents | Reaction Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Haloalkane | Alcohol | NaOH (aq) / heat under reflux | Nucleophilic substitution |
| Haloalkane | Nitrile | - | Nucleophilic substitution |
| Haloalkane | Amine | NH₃ / ethanol | Nucleophilic substitution |
Alkane Reactions
| Reactant | Product | Reagents | Reaction Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alkane | Haloalkane | Halogen / UV light | Free radical substitution |
Oxidation Reactions
| Reactant | Product | Reagents | Reaction Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary alcohol | Aldehyde | K₂Cr₂O₇ / H₂SO₄ / Distillation | Oxidation |
| Secondary alcohol | Ketone | Heat | Oxidation |
| Primary alcohol | Carboxylic acid | Heat under reflux | Oxidation |
Reduction Reactions
| Reactant | Product | Reagents | Reaction Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aldehyde | Primary alcohol | NaBH₄ / H₂O | Reduction |
| Ketone | Secondary alcohol | NaBH₄ / H₂O, NaCN | Reduction |
| Nitrobenzene | Aminobenzene / Phenylamine / Aniline | Sn / HCl | Reduction |
| Phenylethanone | 1-Phenylethanol | NaBH₄ | Reduction |
| Nitrile | Amine | LiAlH₄ | Reduction |
Benzene Reactions
| Reactant | Product | Reagents | Reaction Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Benzene | Methylbenzene | CH₃Cl / AlCl₃ | Alkylation / Electrophilic substitution |
| Benzene | Bromobenzene | Br₂ / FeBr₃ | Bromination / Electrophilic substitution |
| Benzene | Chlorobenzene | Cl₂ / AlCl₃ | Chlorination / Electrophilic substitution |
| Benzene | Nitrobenzene | HNO₃ / H₂SO₄ | Nitration / Electrophilic substitution |
| Benzene | Phenylethanone | CH₃COCl / AlCl₃ | Acylation / Electrophilic substitution |
